The dissolution of empire has been critical to the growth of world cities Essay Example for Free

The dissolution of empire has been critical to the growth of world cities Essay King (1990, page x) argues that the dissolution of empire has been critical to the growth of world cities. How far does this apply to London? Modern patterns of development and growth have been shaped and influenced by the historical context of colonialism. Within this context relationships between capitalist and pre-capitalist states or colonies helped forge a world economy, which would later lead to processes of globalisation and the current economic world order. Expansion in the world economy has been exacerbated by the freer flow of labour, goods, services and capital, which are features of the post-war, post-colonial world. King contends that these factors have been critical to the growth of world cities. (King, 1990: x) Urbanisation in many post-colonial states has been rapid, supported by trade with a greater number of nations compared with that of the colonial period. Indeed, many colonial nations have now followed their own paths of industrialisation, instead of relying primarily on their export of natural resources such as timber; their economies are becoming more diverse and are now linked within a global network of trade and commerce that is enabling them to develop significantly. Existing at the heart of these states are primary cities, the administrative and economic centres for their new global roles. World cities can be defined by their size, population and area; they are usually the economic hub of the country in which they are seats of power and dominate in the cultural arena with their iconic architectural distinctiveness and the importance of their historical roles. World cities lie at the junction between the world economy and the territorial national state. (Friedmann and Wolff, 1982) The city of London fills these criteria perfectly, its former position as the centre of the British Empire made London the imperial metropolis of the world. H.G Wells described his impression of imperial London: Its a great place. Immense. The richest town in the world, the biggest port, the greatest manufacturing town, the imperial city the centre of civilisation, the heart of the world. (Wells H.G, 1908:73) In this essay I will be discussing the significance of Kings argument with reference to the city of London. Imperial London will be introduced followed by a discussion of Londons decline and its patterns of modern growth in order to ascertain how far Kings argument applies to the City. Different types of growth are included, but emphasis is largely placed on the geographical and economic dimensions of Londons change and development. Londons imperial role was crucial to the expansion of its fortunes. Growth was inextricably linked with the colonial empire and took place in several key areas during the colonial interlude. Londons Docklands represented a melting pot of colonial trade and commerce and were a critical facet of Londons (and Great Britains) economy that fed aspects of growth into the city centre and enabled it to thrive. In 1700 London handled 80% of the countrys imports and 69% of its exports. Trade with colonies in the Caribbean, Southeast Asia and the Indian Sub-Continent brought in tea, china, rice, tobacco and spices to the City and in 1799 the West India Company began to build docks on the Isle of Dogs for over 600 ships. The importance of Londons Docklands lies in their influential role as conduit of wealth to the City and their symbolic nature as gateways to the empire from its thriving commercial centre. Trade flourished, and London became a market-driven commercial and financial hub for world trade. Manufacturers established themselves in the city centre and markets developed around them supported by a growing number of banks. The city centre, therefore, was a series of markets and had few residential zones; warehouses formed a prominent part of the landscape. Imperial London also witnessed the growth of a market in stocks and shares located at the London Stock Exchange, and the establishment of large insurance companies such as Lloyds of London. Londons rising financial sector was represented by the Bank of England, which issued loans to new colonies whilst giving security to the blossoming economy of Great Britain. The Citys role as a cultural centre was represented by huge investment in museums and theatres and its dominant global position was expressed through monuments depicting colonial glories and exhibitions showcasing British power. Whilst there was growth of commerce alongside growth of the Citys financial sector, trends later developed in the form of rapid suburban growth aided by improved infrastructure in and around London. The London County Council (LCC) took on numerous housing projects peaking at 16,000 units that gradually expanded outwards form the City and were facilitated by improvements in communications, a tramway system and the electrification of the railways. As the new century dawned, Londons position at the hub of the worlds largest empire gave work to half a million in the docks and in import-related occupations.London continued to grow; between 1911 and 1939 its population increased from 7.25 to 8.73 million entirely in the outer ring beyond the LCC boundaries. (Porter, 1994:32) Urbanisation during this period was undoubtedly fed by the provisions created by empire, manifested in a country with a confident and specialised role in the world economy. In this system, London occupied the nodal point of a colonial urban system in which the economies of the metropolis and of such distant cities as Calcutta or Sydney and their respective hinterlands complemented one another and were heavily interdependent. (Sheppard, 1998:313) The testing of imperial Londons power by two world wars and the following dissolution of empire were to dramatically change the face of the City. These influences forced upon London the devastating effects of The Blitz and the processes of relinquishing power to the colonised nations, which had for so long been the source of Londons wealth. Inevitably Londons power began to decline and it was challenged with finding new ways to rebuild and to grow. [London] was sustained by surplus extracted from the colonial economy. With the demise of the colonial power, it lacked the economic base to meet the social costs it generated. [This resulted in] problems of housing, a shortage of economic resourcesand a lack of the institutional infrastructure to deal with social, administrative and political needs. (King, 1990:45) Disappearance of hegemonic power systems took place, and the nation-state grew in significance as a unit of analysis. Within these nation states the seats of power were able to control their own destinies and determine growth within their own political boundaries; this growth was facilitated by the freer flow of goods and capital through the nation states principal cities. The dissolution of empire and the effects of the Second World War led to a dramatic shift in the nature of Londons economy which ultimately affected its growth. The collapse of the manufacturing industries is a case in point, and from the mid-1950s people began to suffer job losses in this area. Between 1971 and 1975 19 per cent of manufacturing jobs disappearedbetween 1978 and 1981 some 98,700 jobs in manufacturing and production were lost. (Coupland, 1992:26-27) Commerce also declined in central London and as unemployment rose a deprived inner city began to emerge. Londons problems were exacerbated not only by the housing problems caused by wartime damage, but by the closure of the docks, which had survived the war but could not survive the break-up of empire. The Empirehad long ensured Londons position as the worlds premier port [.] Independence, however, loosened old trading ties; no longer was trade automatically routed through London, and new nations created trading preferences of their own, selling direct to America, Germany and Japan. During the 1960s Commonwealth trade was halved, and London shrank as an entrepot. (Porter, 1994, 348) The closure of this critical dimension of Londons power represented symbolic as well as industrial and demographic decline. Moreover, while disintegration of manufacturing in London can be attributed to varying factors such as economic recession, the closure of the Docks are inextricably linked to the dissolution of the British Empire. The closure also affected activities linked to the Docklands: transport, warehousing and food processing industries and systems were damaged and the Citys economic woes took shape in the form of rapid demographic change. As people moved outward from Greater London the population began to decrease, from 8,600,000 in 1939 to 6,300,000 in 1991, a trend which continues today. The unemployment rate in the industrial areas of inner-London rose to 14 per cent in 1981, while a new trend of mass immigration from the Commonwealth changed the ethnic composition of Londons population and reflected Londons increasing diversity. The dynamics of Londons decline began to influence new processes of growth, both physical and economic. The new industries that grew up in London were connected to its role as an information city and there was an escalation in the significance of the cultural production sector. Tourism became a major source of income for London. Systems of land-use planning began to determine Londons physical growth, with the establishment of the Green Belt designed to fix an area of permanent countryside around the city in a policy to shift 1,033,000 Londoners and workplaces beyond its boundaries. This policy may have hindered urban sprawl, but it has also led to new types of growth in the form of an Outer Ring, as towns on Londons periphery have had to adapt and grow due to the population exodus from Greater London. Altogether, this Outer Ring added nearly one million to [Londons] population in the decade 1951-61, representing two-fifths of the net growth of the British population. (Hall, 1977:24) The growth of the Outer Ring coincided with various strategies by the LCC including the development of tower-block estates, a move that would later lead to rising social problems in the areas in which they were built. There continued to be a rise in office space in the inner city, as Londons financial sector remained strong alongside an influx of the middle classes into inner-suburb precincts. Consequently improvements in housing took hold mainly in areas such as Notting Hill, Paddington and Mile End. The 1960s were witness to the increased significance of London as a cultural centre and the City became an international heart of fashion, music and design. [T]he City grew impressively from the 1960s, thanks to a combination of accident, expertise, language and geography. (Porter, 1994:374) Redevelopment of London began with the comprehensive reconstruction of Tower Hamlets and in more recent times with the controversial redevelopment of the Docklands. The scale of redevelopment of the Docklands is characterised by the construction of Great Britains tallest building: Canary Wharf. The area creates office space for 40,000 to 60,000 workers and symbolises the emergence of a new and modern London, one that is predominantly concerned with business and finance, and one that continues to exude success due to these sectors. From this discussion we can clearly see the importance of Londons imperial status in relation to its growth. Dissolution of empire has indeed been critical to the growth of world cities as they have become more freely exposed to the processes of globalisation and have had greater control of their position in the world economy. This contention can be exemplified by the current position of world cities, such as New York and Singapore in the economic world order and the growth of former colonys capitals as they engage in directing their own futures, levels of trade and spatial organisation. London, however, is an exceptional case. As an imperial city it was largely dependent on its colonial territories for sustaining its own growth and power. Whereas eighty or ninety years ago, London was at the core of the world system, a generator of powerful economic, political and cultural forces pushing out to the periphery, today it increasingly contends with equally powerful economic, political, and cultural forces pressing in from outside.'(King, 1990:73) This change has increased the vulnerability of Londons economy. All other world cities havehad to adapt to the internationalization of the world economy Paris and New York, for instance; but what distinguishes London is the degree of its former imperial dominance, and the extent to which internationalization has brought foreign ownership, and hence dependence. (Sheppard, 1998:359) Modern London now has to compete with other primary cities which have not had to undergo such a dramatic transition in their character and global position. Significant redevelopment has taken place in recent years and London continues to exemplify the world city. Its prominent role in Europe, its historical importance, imposing architecture, economic wealth and position as seat of power all contribute to make London one of the major cities of the world. The importance of dissolution of empire to many world cities is demonstrated by the increased flow of capital, labour, goods and services which have enabled them to grow. Imperial London already contained these processes which were fundamentally linked with its dominant global role, it is therefore, increasingly dependent and vulnerable within the new world economic order. However, the disintegration of its imperial role has not been completely negative to Londons growth, the City has just had to find time and method to help adapt and reposition itself within a new global system. Within this system London has now found a specific function as a global centre for banking and financial trading, which increasingly determine its international role and its patterns of modern growth. Bibliography. Coupland, Andy: Every Job an Office Job. And Docklands: Dream or Disaster? In Thornley, Andy (ed) (1992) The Crisis of London. Routledge. Friedmann, J and Wolff, G. (1982) World City formation: an agenda for research and action., International Journal of Urban and Regional Research: 6. Hall, P (1977 2nd edition) The World Cities. Weidenfield and Nicholson, London. Ch 2. King, AD (1990) Global Cities: Post-Imperialism and the Internationalization of London. Routledge. Porter, Roy (1994) London: A Social History. Penguin, London. Shappard, Francis (1998) London: A History. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Wells, H.G. (1908) Tono-Bungay. London: Oldhams Press.

Pop control :: essays research papers

In the essay â€Å"Population, Delusion and Reality,† Amartya Sen discusses two opposing approaches to population control. These two approaches are â€Å"collaboration† and â€Å"override† The collaboration approach calls for a voluntary choice as well as a collaborative solution to controlling the population growth. The collaborative approach relies on more choices for men and women, a more educated and rational decision on the part of both men and women, and an open arena for a more extensive discussion on such subjects. These men and women are able to make such rational decisions based on the opportunity to be more educated and with a sense of self-confidence when presented with the ability to do so by having public policies such as family planning, health care, bigger and better education facilities and a sense of economic well being. Our ability to solve problems by making rational and educated decisions seems like a better alternative than to forcing a reso lution. The â€Å"override† approach works by means of legal or economic coercion, such as the means that China forces with their â€Å"one child policy.† With this approach, the government may deny individuals of job opportunities or deny housing. These people are left with no other choice but to follow along with what the government would want them to do. Although the collaboration method results in a higher standard of living with higher levels of consumption as well as increases threats to the environment, Sen believes that it is still the preferred method of controlling and curbing the population at hand. For one, â€Å"override† leaves the individual with very few choices. It limits their freedom. As with China, it can lead to neglect and often endangerment to a second child. More often than not, since a male child is favored among the Chinese, female children have been reported to have been severely neglected and speculations that female infanticide may occur. A higher level of consumption isn’t big enough of a problem as some may assume. As Sen puts it â€Å" the worldwide trend of output of food per person has been firmly upward.† The places that have an increase in population are the ones that also seem to have an increase in the production of food. The average American does pose as a bigger threat on the environment than dozens of Third World individuals, but yet these individuals raise a red flag for complications for a denser population on rural resources such as forests, fields, and other greenery.

Ethical Lens Essay

During the Ethical Lens Inventory exercise that I did, I learned that I do not really have a personal preferred ethical lens. I see the gifts and the weaknesses of each lens and I am able to move fluidly among them to adapt the right tools to each situation to assure the best outcome. I am able to use my reasoning skills to determine my duties, as well as the universal rules and the systems that will assure fairness and justice for everyone. I also listen to my intuition to determine the greatest good for each individual, as well as the virtues that will best serve the community. I have either a mature ability to use the right tools in a given situation or a paralyzed belief that everyone has a valid point. Although each of us has preferred lens, some who are ethically mature and able to use the tools of all the lenses, adapting them as appropriate in a given situation, test in the center of the grid. Others who test in the center of the grid actually have underdeveloped ethical skills. Those without skills tend to be paralyzed by their ability to see all sides and are too desperate to please everyone. I personally think I do more of the being desperate to please everyone than the not being able to see all sides of the situation. I was able to get this information from the exercise I did at: http://www. ethicsgame. com/Exec/Eli/EthicalLensResults. aspx? R=1 My Core Values are: Autonomy, Equality, Rationality and Sensibility. I value autonomy and equality equally and I value rationality and sensibility equally. My Classic Values are: Temperance, Prudence, Justice and Fortitude. I am able to manifest all four classic virtues depending on what the circumstances require. My Key Phrase is: â€Å"I make ethical choices for myself and others. † I am able to see myself and others clearly, therefore I do not make assumptions about why people act the way they do or how things should be done. My Definition of Ethical Behavior is: Doing the Right Thing. I tend to hold this high standard for myself but I do not judge others who fall short, so long as their intentions were honorable. My Tools for Analyzing Problems are: Reason, Experience, Authority and Tradition. I am comfortable using all available tools to analyze a problem. These can include critical thinking skills, reference to experts, my own past experience and the traditions of the community. My Gift to the community is balance among all four lenses, because I can see the benefits of each of the lenses and I can use the tools of all of them. The mature expression of this position has no blind spot. I am able to see both the strengths and the weaknesses of each lens and to harmonize the four core values of autonomy, equality, rationality and sensibility. Discernment comes with ethical maturity and provides direction in specific situations. My Risk is: Inaction. I run the risk of seeing everything and deciding nothing if I am not self-aware. As one who sees the legitimacy of everyone’s point of view, I am particularly prone to delay or outright inaction. My Temptation is: Superiority. Believing that my balanced vantage point gives me a superior ability to resolve ethical dilemmas, I may convince myself that I have all the answers and do not need any input from others. My Vice is: Insistence on Agreement. By insisting that everyone validate all points of view as I do before moving forward, I become tyrannical and may actually provoke dissenters into sabotaging the process as the only way they feel they can maintain the integrity of their different viewpoint. My Crisis is: Confusion. Unless I develop the practice of mindfulness and reflection, at some point I will become confused and find that I have lost my moral compass. The downside of being able to see everyone else’s perspective is that I can lose track of my own. My Seeing Clearly is: Listen to my heart; use my head; act with confidence. To see more clearly, I need to first consider the nature of the problem. Then I need to use both my head and my heart to discern which course of action will best manifest interdependence. Once I have assessed the ramifications of the various options, I will need to act with confidence and courage. Although there may be more than one way to resolve a problem, some actually are better than others. I think I could use my personal ethics to determine a course of action by knowing how I feel about the situation along with all the circumstances involving the situation.

Early History Of America By Robert Lloyd Garrison And The...

Early History of America It draws the global attention to the extend and the achievements of America concerning the major issues of development. However, it must be noted that the history of achievement takes its form of complexity that features the details and characters involved in the immediate past, as well as the ones who determined the current status of America. In the process, major issues like slavery, revolution and settlement served as major drawbacks that hampered development within the American boundaries. In the â€Å"Portrait of America†, the collective work done by Oates and Errico (2012) features an important section that avails more information headed â€Å"I Will Be Heard: William Lloyd Garrison And The Struggle Against Slavery† depicting the work of a humbled author Ian Berlin, who focused much on Nat Turner, who was by then considered a revolt following the prevailing conditions of slavery. Further details on antislavery reveal the true character of an abolitionist, Garrison. In addition, the work narrows down to the actions taken by Thomas Jefferson related to antislavery. Garrison’s time entailed slavery that stretched to the American south accompanied with denial of rights from the African Americans. Segregation cultivated racism in a quite far reaching extent of observing every nature and behavior of the African Americans. Such actions among others raised a great concern of emancipating the blacks beginning with releasing the children of the slaves.Show MoreRelatedThe American Civil War6915 Words   |  28 PagesWar After the War of Independence the United States of America was governed by the Articles of Confederation. This provided for a weak central government and strong state governments. 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